Title: Zdánlivá jednosměrka: Knobův efekt a teorie mysli
Variant title:
- Illusory one-way: the Knobe effect and the theory of mind
Source document: Pro-Fil. 2014, vol. 15, iss. Doplňkové číslo, pp. [2]-14
Extent
[2]-14
-
ISSN1212-9097
Persistent identifier (DOI): https://doi.org/10.5817/pf15-3-995
Stable URL (handle): https://hdl.handle.net/11222.digilib/134127
Type: Article
Language
License: Not specified license
Notice: These citations are automatically created and might not follow citation rules properly.
Abstract(s)
Cílem článku je ukázat, že zdánlivě asymetrický vztah mezi teorií mysli a morálkou je ve skutečnosti symetrický. Totiž nejen, že lidé využívají teorii mysli k rozhodnutí, zda si agent zaslouží vinit a zda učinil něco morálně špatného (nebo si zaslouží chválit a učinil něco morálně dobrého), ale někdy samotný morální charakter situace může ovlivnit teorii mysli. Nejprve provedu krátký úvod do teorie mysli - co to je, jak ji používáme a jak nám může být nápomocna. Poté popíšu proces hodnocení morální situace se směrem od teorie mysli (zvážení agentových mentálních stavů, připsání konceptů agentovi) k morálce (vynesení morálního soudu). V tomto procesu figuruje důležitý koncept - koncept záměrného jednání - který může hrát významnou roli při rozhodování o vině (nebo chvále) agenta: pokud jednal záměrně, vina (nebo chvála) by měla být větší. Opravdu to takto funguje? A co laici? Jaký je lidový koncept záměrného jednání? Na tyto otázky se pokusím odpovědět s pomocí empirických dat, která poskytli Bertram Malle a Joshua Knobe, a představím pět podmínek lidového konceptu záměrného jednání. Poté se ve světle dat shromážděných Joshuou Knobem pokusím ukázat, že dřívější přístup ke vztahu mezi teorií mysli a morálkou jako jednosměrnému se zdá být neudržitelný. Způsobil agent vedlejší účinek záměrně? Dosáhl něčeho agent záměrně, ačkoli neměl dostatek potřebných dovedností? Výsledky Knobových experimentů naznačují, že lidé jsou nejspíše ovlivněni morálním charakterem samotného vedlejšího účinku nebo výsledku. Pokud je morálně špatný, agent jednal záměrně, avšak pokud je morálně dobrý, agent nejednal záměrně - tato asymetrie se nazývá "Knobův efekt". Rovněž se pokusím vyrovnat se s některými možnými námitkami. V závěru se budu zabývat určitými právnímu důsledky, které z tohoto nově symetrického vztahu mezi teorií mysli a morálkou vyvstávají.
The aim of this paper is to provide evidence, that seemingly asymmetrical relationship between theory of mind and morality is in fact symmetrical. That is, not only that people use theory of mind to determine whether the agent is blameworthy and did something morally bad (or praiseworthy and did something morally good), but sometimes the moral character of the situation itself might influence people's theory of mind. First, I will make a brief introduction to the theory of mind – what it is, how we use it and how it could be useful to us. Then I will describe the process of evaluation of moral situation with the direction from theory of mind (considering agent's mental states, ascribing concepts to the agent) to morality (make a moral judgment). In this process there is an important concept – the concept of intentional action – which can play a significant role in determining blameworthiness (or praiseworthiness) of an agent: if he acted intentionally, the blame (or praise) should be bigger. Does it really work that way? What about lay people? What is the folk concept of intentional action like? I will try to answer these questions with empirical data provided by Bertram Malle and Joshua Knobe and name five conditions for the folk concept of intentional action. Then, in the light of empirical data gathered by Joshua Knobe, I will try to show that former approach to the relation between theory of mind and morality as one-directional seems untenable. Did the agent brought about some side-effect intentionally? Did the agent achieve something intentionally, even though he did not have enough skill to do it? Results of Knobe's experiments indicate that people are most likely affected by the moral character of the side-effect or the outcome itself. If it is morally bad, agent acted intentionally, but if it is morally good it, agent did not act intentionally – this asymmetry is called "Knobe effect". Also, I will deal with some objections. Finally, I will discuss some of the legal consequences arising from this newly symmetrical relationship between theory of mind and morality.
References
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[7] GUGLIELMO, S. & MALLE, B. F. (2010). Enough Skill to Kill: Intentionality Judgments and the Moral Valence of Action. Cognition. 2010, vol. 117, s. 139-150. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2010.08.002. | DOI 10.1016/j.cognition.2010.08.002
[8] KNOBE, J. (2003a). Intentional Action and Side Effects in Ordinary Language. Analysis. 2003, vol. 63, s. 190-194. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/analys/63.3.190. | DOI 10.1093/analys/63.3.190
[9] KNOBE, J. (2003b). Intentional Action in Folk Psychology: Experimental Investigation. Philosophical Psychology. 2003, vol. 16, s. 309-324. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09515080307771. | DOI 10.1080/09515080307771
[10] KNOBE, J. (2004). Intention, Intentional Action and Moral Considerations. Analysis. 2004, vol. 64, no. 2, s. 181-187. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8284.2004.00481.x. | DOI 10.1093/analys/64.2.181
[11] KOBICK, J. & KNOBE, J. (2009). Interpreting Intent. How Research on Folk Judgments of Intentionality Can Inform Statutory Analysis [online]. In Brooklyn Law Review. Symposium: Is morality universal and should the law care? 2009, vol. 75, no. 2, s. 409-432 [cit. 2014-10-08]. Dostupné z WWW: http://www.brooklaw.edu/~/media/PDF/LawJournals/BLR_PDF/blr_v75ii.ashx.
[12] LESLIE, A. M., KNOBE, J. & COHEN, A. (2006). Acting Intentionally and the Side-effect Effect. Psychological Science. 2006, vol. 17, s. 421-427. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01722.x. | DOI 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01722.x
[13] MALLE, B. F. (2004). The Moral Dimension of Intentionality Judgments [online]. Technical Reports of the Institute of Cognitive and Decision Sciences. 2004, no. 04-2, [cit. 2013-11-15]. Dostupné z WWW: http://www.hebb.uoregon.edu/04-02tech.pdf.
[14] MALLE, B. F. & KNOBE, J. (1997). The Folk Concept of Intentionality. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 1997, vol. 33, s. 101-121. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1996.1314. | DOI 10.1006/jesp.1996.1314
[15] MALLE, B. F. & NELSON, S. E. (2003). Judging Mens Rea: The Tension Between Folk Concepts and Legal Concepts of Intentionality. Behavioral Science and the Law. 2003, vol. 21, s. 563-580. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bsl.554 . | DOI 10.1002/bsl.554
[16] MAURO, J. C. (2013), Intentional Killing Without Intending to Kill: Knobe's Theory as a Rational Limit on Felony Murder [online]. Louisiana Law Review. 2013, vol. 73, no. 4 [cit. 2014-15-08]. Dostupné z WWW: http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001&context=joseph_mauro.
[17] MCCANN, H. (1986). Rationality and the Range of Intention. Midwest Studies in Philosophy. 1986, vol. 10, no. 1, s. 191-211. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4975.1987.tb00540.x. | DOI 10.1111/j.1475-4975.1987.tb00540.x
[18] MELE, A. (2001). Acting Intentionally: Probing Folk Notions. In MALLE, B. F., MOSES, L. J. & BALDWIN, D. (Eds.). Intentions and Intentionality: Foundations of Social Cognition. Cambridge (MA): MIT Press, 2001, s. 27-43. Dostupné také z WWW: http://mitpress2.mit.edu/books/chapters/0262133865chap1.pdf.
[19] NADELHOFFER, T. (2004). The Butler Problem Revisited. Analysis. 2004, vol. 64, s. 277-284. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0003-2638.2004.00497.x. | DOI 10.1093/analys/64.3.277
[20] NADELHOFFER, T. (2005). Skill, Luck, Control, and Intentional Action. Philosophical Psychology. 2005, vol. 18, no. 3, s. 341-352. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09515080500177309. | DOI 10.1080/09515080500177309
[21] NADELHOFFER, T. (2006). On Trying to Save the Simple View. Mind & Language. 2006, vol. 21, no. 5, s. 565-586. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1468-0017.2006.00292.x. | DOI 10.1111/j.1468-0017.2006.00292.x
[22] NADO, J. (2008). Effects of Moral Cognition on Judgments of Intentionality. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science. 2008, vol. 59, s. 709-731. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/bjps/axn035. | DOI 10.1093/bjps/axn035
[23] NICHOLS, S. & ULATOWSKI, J. (2007). Intuitions and individual differences: The Knobe effect revisited. Mind and Language. 2007, vol. 22, no. 4, s. 346-365. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0017.2007.00312.x. | DOI 10.1111/j.1468-0017.2007.00312.x
[24] NÚÑEZ, M., & HARRIS, P. L. (1998). Psychological and deontic concepts: Separate domains or intimate connection? Mind & Language. 1998, vol. 13, s. 153-170. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-0017.00071. | DOI 10.1111/1468-0017.00071
[25] PINILLOS, N. A., SMITH, N., NAIR, G. S., MARCHETTO, P. & MUN, C. (2011). Philosophy's New Challenge Experiments and Intentional Action. Mind and Language. 2011, vol. 26, s. 115-139. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0017.2010.01412.x . | DOI 10.1111/j.1468-0017.2010.01412.x
[26] RAVENSCROFT, I. (2010). Folk Psychology as a Theory [online]. In: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Edition Fall 2010 [cit. 2014-15-08]. Dostupné z WWW: http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2010/entries/folkpsych-theory/.
[27] SOUSA, P. & HOLBROOK, C. (2010). Folk Concepts of Intentional Action in the Contexts and Immoral Luck. The Review of Philosophy and Psychology. 2010, vol. 1, no. 3, s. 351-370. Dostupné z: WWW: 10.1007/s13164-010-0028-x.
[28] TANNENBAUM, D., DITTO, P. H. & PIZARRO, D. (2007). Different Moral Values Produce Different Judgments of Intentional Action [online]. In Psychology and Social Behavior departmental colloquium, University of California, Irvine. [cit. 2013-11-10]. Dostupné z WWW: http://experimentalphilosophy.typepad.com/experimental_philosophy/files/2ndyear_paper.pdf.
[29] WIMMER, H. & PERNER, J. (1983). Beliefs about Beliefs: Representation and Constraining Function of Wrong Beliefs in Young Children's Understanding of Deception. Cognition. 1983, vol. 13, no. 1, s. 103-128. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(83)90004-5. | DOI 10.1016/0010-0277(83)90004-5
[30] WRIGHT, J. C. & BENGSON, J. (2009). Asymmetries in Judgments of Responsibility and Intentional Action. Mind and Language. 2009, vol. 24, no. 1, s. 24-50. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0017.2008.01352.x. | DOI 10.1111/j.1468-0017.2008.01352.x
[31] YOUNG, L., CUSHMAN, F., ADOLPHS, R., TRANEL, D. & HAUSER, M. (2006). Does Emotion Mediate The Relationship Between An Action's Moral Status And Its Intentional Status? Neuropsychological Evidence. Journal of Cognition and Culture. 2006, vol. 6, no. 1-2, s. 291-304. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853706776931312. | DOI 10.1163/156853706776931312
[32] Zákon č. 40/2009 Sb., trestné činy proti životu a zdraví, §140, §141 a §143. In: Trestní zákoník. Aktuální znění od 23. 8. 2013.
[2] BARON-COHEN, S., LESLIE, A. M. & FRITH, U. (1985). Does the Autistic Child have a "Theory of Mind"? Cognition. 1985, vol. 21, no. 1, s. 37-46. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(85)90022-8. | DOI 10.1016/0010-0277(85)90022-8
[3] BRATMAN, M. (1984). Two Faces of Intention. Philosophical Review. 1984, vol. 93, no. 3, s. 375-405. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2184542. | DOI 10.2307/2184542
[4] BUTLER, R. (1978). Report on Analysis "Problem" no. 16. Analysis. 1978, vol. 38, no. 3, s. 113-114. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/analys/38.3.113a. | DOI 10.1093/analys/38.3.113a
[5] BYSTROŇOVÁ, M. (2014). Knobův efekt [online]. Magisterská diplomová práce. Brno, Filozofická fakulta Masarykovy univerzity, Katedra filosofie. [Cit. 2014-08-08]. Dostupné z WWW: https://is.muni.cz/auth/th/263585/ff_m/Diplomova_prace_Bystronova.pdf.
[6] GOPNIK, A. & SEIVER, E. (2009). Reading Minds: How Infants Come to Understand Others. Zero to Three. 2009, vol. 30, no. 2, s. 28-32. Dostupné také z WWW: http://www.alisongopnik.com/papers_alison/gopnik%20&%20seiver%202009.pdf.
[7] GUGLIELMO, S. & MALLE, B. F. (2010). Enough Skill to Kill: Intentionality Judgments and the Moral Valence of Action. Cognition. 2010, vol. 117, s. 139-150. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2010.08.002. | DOI 10.1016/j.cognition.2010.08.002
[8] KNOBE, J. (2003a). Intentional Action and Side Effects in Ordinary Language. Analysis. 2003, vol. 63, s. 190-194. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/analys/63.3.190. | DOI 10.1093/analys/63.3.190
[9] KNOBE, J. (2003b). Intentional Action in Folk Psychology: Experimental Investigation. Philosophical Psychology. 2003, vol. 16, s. 309-324. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09515080307771. | DOI 10.1080/09515080307771
[10] KNOBE, J. (2004). Intention, Intentional Action and Moral Considerations. Analysis. 2004, vol. 64, no. 2, s. 181-187. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8284.2004.00481.x. | DOI 10.1093/analys/64.2.181
[11] KOBICK, J. & KNOBE, J. (2009). Interpreting Intent. How Research on Folk Judgments of Intentionality Can Inform Statutory Analysis [online]. In Brooklyn Law Review. Symposium: Is morality universal and should the law care? 2009, vol. 75, no. 2, s. 409-432 [cit. 2014-10-08]. Dostupné z WWW: http://www.brooklaw.edu/~/media/PDF/LawJournals/BLR_PDF/blr_v75ii.ashx.
[12] LESLIE, A. M., KNOBE, J. & COHEN, A. (2006). Acting Intentionally and the Side-effect Effect. Psychological Science. 2006, vol. 17, s. 421-427. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01722.x. | DOI 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01722.x
[13] MALLE, B. F. (2004). The Moral Dimension of Intentionality Judgments [online]. Technical Reports of the Institute of Cognitive and Decision Sciences. 2004, no. 04-2, [cit. 2013-11-15]. Dostupné z WWW: http://www.hebb.uoregon.edu/04-02tech.pdf.
[14] MALLE, B. F. & KNOBE, J. (1997). The Folk Concept of Intentionality. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 1997, vol. 33, s. 101-121. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1996.1314. | DOI 10.1006/jesp.1996.1314
[15] MALLE, B. F. & NELSON, S. E. (2003). Judging Mens Rea: The Tension Between Folk Concepts and Legal Concepts of Intentionality. Behavioral Science and the Law. 2003, vol. 21, s. 563-580. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bsl.554 . | DOI 10.1002/bsl.554
[16] MAURO, J. C. (2013), Intentional Killing Without Intending to Kill: Knobe's Theory as a Rational Limit on Felony Murder [online]. Louisiana Law Review. 2013, vol. 73, no. 4 [cit. 2014-15-08]. Dostupné z WWW: http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001&context=joseph_mauro.
[17] MCCANN, H. (1986). Rationality and the Range of Intention. Midwest Studies in Philosophy. 1986, vol. 10, no. 1, s. 191-211. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4975.1987.tb00540.x. | DOI 10.1111/j.1475-4975.1987.tb00540.x
[18] MELE, A. (2001). Acting Intentionally: Probing Folk Notions. In MALLE, B. F., MOSES, L. J. & BALDWIN, D. (Eds.). Intentions and Intentionality: Foundations of Social Cognition. Cambridge (MA): MIT Press, 2001, s. 27-43. Dostupné také z WWW: http://mitpress2.mit.edu/books/chapters/0262133865chap1.pdf.
[19] NADELHOFFER, T. (2004). The Butler Problem Revisited. Analysis. 2004, vol. 64, s. 277-284. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0003-2638.2004.00497.x. | DOI 10.1093/analys/64.3.277
[20] NADELHOFFER, T. (2005). Skill, Luck, Control, and Intentional Action. Philosophical Psychology. 2005, vol. 18, no. 3, s. 341-352. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09515080500177309. | DOI 10.1080/09515080500177309
[21] NADELHOFFER, T. (2006). On Trying to Save the Simple View. Mind & Language. 2006, vol. 21, no. 5, s. 565-586. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1468-0017.2006.00292.x. | DOI 10.1111/j.1468-0017.2006.00292.x
[22] NADO, J. (2008). Effects of Moral Cognition on Judgments of Intentionality. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science. 2008, vol. 59, s. 709-731. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/bjps/axn035. | DOI 10.1093/bjps/axn035
[23] NICHOLS, S. & ULATOWSKI, J. (2007). Intuitions and individual differences: The Knobe effect revisited. Mind and Language. 2007, vol. 22, no. 4, s. 346-365. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0017.2007.00312.x. | DOI 10.1111/j.1468-0017.2007.00312.x
[24] NÚÑEZ, M., & HARRIS, P. L. (1998). Psychological and deontic concepts: Separate domains or intimate connection? Mind & Language. 1998, vol. 13, s. 153-170. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-0017.00071. | DOI 10.1111/1468-0017.00071
[25] PINILLOS, N. A., SMITH, N., NAIR, G. S., MARCHETTO, P. & MUN, C. (2011). Philosophy's New Challenge Experiments and Intentional Action. Mind and Language. 2011, vol. 26, s. 115-139. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0017.2010.01412.x . | DOI 10.1111/j.1468-0017.2010.01412.x
[26] RAVENSCROFT, I. (2010). Folk Psychology as a Theory [online]. In: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Edition Fall 2010 [cit. 2014-15-08]. Dostupné z WWW: http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2010/entries/folkpsych-theory/.
[27] SOUSA, P. & HOLBROOK, C. (2010). Folk Concepts of Intentional Action in the Contexts and Immoral Luck. The Review of Philosophy and Psychology. 2010, vol. 1, no. 3, s. 351-370. Dostupné z: WWW: 10.1007/s13164-010-0028-x.
[28] TANNENBAUM, D., DITTO, P. H. & PIZARRO, D. (2007). Different Moral Values Produce Different Judgments of Intentional Action [online]. In Psychology and Social Behavior departmental colloquium, University of California, Irvine. [cit. 2013-11-10]. Dostupné z WWW: http://experimentalphilosophy.typepad.com/experimental_philosophy/files/2ndyear_paper.pdf.
[29] WIMMER, H. & PERNER, J. (1983). Beliefs about Beliefs: Representation and Constraining Function of Wrong Beliefs in Young Children's Understanding of Deception. Cognition. 1983, vol. 13, no. 1, s. 103-128. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(83)90004-5. | DOI 10.1016/0010-0277(83)90004-5
[30] WRIGHT, J. C. & BENGSON, J. (2009). Asymmetries in Judgments of Responsibility and Intentional Action. Mind and Language. 2009, vol. 24, no. 1, s. 24-50. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0017.2008.01352.x. | DOI 10.1111/j.1468-0017.2008.01352.x
[31] YOUNG, L., CUSHMAN, F., ADOLPHS, R., TRANEL, D. & HAUSER, M. (2006). Does Emotion Mediate The Relationship Between An Action's Moral Status And Its Intentional Status? Neuropsychological Evidence. Journal of Cognition and Culture. 2006, vol. 6, no. 1-2, s. 291-304. Dostupné z WWW: http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853706776931312. | DOI 10.1163/156853706776931312
[32] Zákon č. 40/2009 Sb., trestné činy proti životu a zdraví, §140, §141 a §143. In: Trestní zákoník. Aktuální znění od 23. 8. 2013.