Title: Data ethics in education: a theoretical, practical, and policy issue
Source document: Studia paedagogica. 2021, vol. 26, iss. 4, pp. [9]-26
Extent
[9]-26
-
ISSN1803-7437 (print)2336-4521 (online)
Persistent identifier (DOI): https://doi.org/10.5817/SP2021-4-1
Stable URL (handle): https://hdl.handle.net/11222.digilib/144766
Type: Article
Language
License: Not specified license
Notice: These citations are automatically created and might not follow citation rules properly.
Abstract(s)
Responsible data use has emerged as an important concept in education, especially in the wake of the COVJD-19 pandemic, which continues to highlight inequities. The knowledge and skills to use data effectively and appropriately are at the heart of data ethics. Educators must tightly couple data literacy with an ethical approach to using data—that is, they must be thoughtful about what they choose to do with data, how they go about their work, and how they center their work to benefit, rather than to harm, those engaged in the work of schooling, including students, teachers, families, and other educators. In this article, intended to provoke thought around data ethics among educators, researchers, and policymakers, we take a broad view of what data are and assert that data ethics go far beyond protecting the privacy and confidentiality of data. To be an ethical data user means using the right data in the right ways for the right purposes. The article lays out a context for data ethics, demonstrates how ethics are coupled with data literacy, provides examples of data ethics in practice, and recommends steps for strengthening ethical data use in practice.
References
[1] Aronson, B., Murphy, K. M., & Saultz, A. (2016). Under pressure in Atlanta: School accountability and special education practices during the cheating scandal. Teachers College Record, 118(14), 1–26. | DOI 10.1177/016146811611801411
[2] Beadie, N. (2004). Moral errors and strategic mistakes: Lessons from the history of student accountability. In K. A. Sirotnik (Ed.), Holding accountability accountable: What ought to matter in public education (pp. 35–50). Teachers College Press.
[3] Beck, J. S., & Nunnaley, D. (2021). A continuum of data literacy for teaching. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 69(2), 100871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2020.100871 | DOI 10.1016/j.stueduc.2020.100871
[4] Bertrand, M., & Marsh, J. (2021). How data-driven reform can drive deficit thinking. Phi Delta Kappan, 102(8), 35–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/00317217211013936 | DOI 10.1177/00317217211013936
[5] Booher-Jennings, J. (2005). Below the bubble: "Educational triage" and the Texas accountability system. American Educational Research Journal, 42(2), 231–268. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312042002231 | DOI 10.3102/00028312042002231
[6] Brighouse, H., Ladd, H. F., Loeb, S., & Swift, A. (2018). Good education policy making: Data-informed but values-driven. Phi Delta Kappan, 100(4), 36–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031721718815671 | DOI 10.1177/0031721718815671
[7] Coburn, C. E., & Talbert, J. E. (2006). Conceptions of evidence use in school districts: Mapping the terrain. American Journal of Education, 112(4), 469–495. https://doi.org/10.1086/505056 | DOI 10.1086/505056
[8] Cronbach, L. J. (1988). Five perspectives on validity argument. In H. Wainer & H. I. Braun (Eds.), Test validity (pp. 3–17). Lawrence Erlbaum.
[9] Daly, A. J. (2009). Rigid response in an age of accountability: The potential of leadership and trust. Educational Administration Quarterly, 45(2), 168–216. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0013161X08330499 | DOI 10.1177/0013161X08330499
[10] Darling-Hammond, L. (2007). Standards and accountability movement needs to push, not punish. Journal of Staff Development, 28(4), 47–50.
[11] Datnow, A. (2017). Opening or closing doors for students? Equity and data-driven decision-making. https://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1317&context=research_conference
[12] Datnow, A., Lockton, M., & Weddle, H. (2021). When data use raises equity and ethical dilemmas in schools. In E. B. Mandinach & E. S. Gummer (Eds.), The ethical use of data in education: Promoting responsible policies and practices (pp. 216–231). Teachers College Press.
[13] Datnow, A., & Park, V. (2018). Opening or closing doors for students? Equity and data use in schools. Journal of Educational Change, 19(5), 131–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-018-9323-6 | DOI 10.1007/s10833-018-9323-6
[14] DeMatthews, D. E., & Serafini, A. (2019). Do good principals do bad things? Examining the bounds of ethical behavior in the context of high-stakes accountability. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 20(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/15700763.2019.1668023 | DOI 10.1080/15700763.2019.1668023
[15] Dorn, S., & Ydesen, C. (2014). Towards a comparative and international history of school testing and accountability. Educational Policy Analysis Archives, 22(115), 1–7. http://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v22.1913 | DOI 10.14507/epaa.v22.1913
[16] Fieser, J. (2003). Ethics. The internet encyclopedia of philosophy. https://iep.utm.edu/ethics/#SH2a 5/27/2021
[17] Garner, B., Thome, J. K., & Horn, I. S. (2017). Teachers interpreting data for instructional decisions: Where does equity come in? Journal of Educational Administration, 55(4), 407–426. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEA-09-2016-0106 | DOI 10.1108/JEA-09-2016-0106
[18] Geckoboard. (n.d.). Data fallacies. https://www.geckoboard.com/best-practice/statistical-fallacies/
[19] General Services Administration. (2020, September). Data ethics framework. Federal Data Strategy. https://resources.data.gov/assets/documents/fds-data-ethics-framework.pdf
[20] Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1973). On the psychology of prediction. Psychological Review, 80(4), 237–251. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0034747 | DOI 10.1037/h0034747
[21] Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1984). Choices, values, and frames. American Psychologist, 39(4), 341–350. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.39.4.341 | DOI 10.1037/0003-066X.39.4.341
[22] Kuhn, K. (2013). Test and punish: How the Texas education model gave America accountability without equity. Park Place Publications.
[23] Lupton, D., & Williamson, B. (2017). The datafied child: The dataveillance of children and implications for their rights. New Media & Society, 19(5), 780–794. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444816686328 | DOI 10.1177/1461444816686328
[24] Mandinach, E. B., Cotto, J., Rastrick, E., Siegl, J., Vance, A., & Wayman, J. C. (2021, October). Student data privacy and data ethics scenarios. Washington, DC and San Francisco, CA: Future for Privacy Forum and WestEd. https://studentprivacycompass.org/resource/scenariosuser-guide/
[25] Mandinach, E. B., & Gummer, E. S. (2016). Data literacy for educators: Making it count in teacher preparation and practice. Teachers College Press.
[26] Mandinach, E. B., & Gummer, E. S. (Eds.). (2021a). The ethical use of data in education: Promoting responsible policies and practices. Teachers College Press.
[27] Mandinach, E. B., & Gummer, E. S. (2021b). The landscape of data ethics in education: What counts as responsible data use. In E. B. Mandinach & E. S. Gummer (Eds.), The ethical use of data in education: Promoting responsible policies and practices (pp. 35–55). Teachers College Press.
[28] Mandinach, E. B., & Jimerson, J. B. (2021a). The role of the district, school, and classroom to ensure ethical use of data: It's more than just FERPA. In E. B. Mandinach & E. S. Gummer (Eds.), The ethical use of data in education: Promoting responsible policies and practices (pp. 125–143). Teachers College Press.
[29] Mandinach, E. B., & Jimerson, J. B. (2021b). User's guide for data privacy and data ethics scenarios for leaders. WestEd.
[30] Mandinach, E. B., & Mundry, S. E. (2021). Data-driven decision making and its alignment with educational psychology: Why data are more than student performance results. In S. L. Nichols & D. Varier (Eds.), Teaching on assessment (pp. 269–291). Information Age Publishing.
[31] Mandinach, E. B., & Nunnaley, D. (2021). The role of professional development providers in training data ethics. In E. B. Mandinach & E. S. Gummer (Eds.), The ethical use of data in education: Promoting responsible policies and practices (pp. 144–172). Teachers College Press.
[32] Mandinach, E. B., & Schildkamp, K. (2021). Misconceptions about data-based decision making in education: An exploration of the literature. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 69, 100842. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2020.100842 | DOI 10.1016/j.stueduc.2020.100842
[33] Mandinach, E. B., Warner, S., & Mundry, S. E. (2019, November 6). Using data to promote culturally responsive teaching: Session 1 [webinar]. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Northeast & Islands, Washington, DC, USA. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ltEf8M4RUoQ
[34] Mandinach, E. B., Warner, S., & Mundry, S. E. (2020, June 4). Using data to promote culturally responsive teaching: Session 2 [webinar]. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Northeast & Islands, Washington, DC, USA. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ZZuyFXpqZM
[35] Manolev, J., Sullivan, A., & Slee, R. (2019). The datafication of discipline: ClassDojo, surveillance and a performative classroom culture. Learning, Media and Technology, 44(1), 36–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2018.1558237 | DOI 10.1080/17439884.2018.1558237
[36] Messick, S. J. (1989). Validity. In. R. L. Linn (Ed.), Educational measurement (3rd ed., pp. 13–103.). Macmillan.
[37] Militello, M., Bass, L., Jackson, K. T., & Wang, Y. (2013). How data are used and misused in schools: Perceptions from teachers and principals. Education Sciences, 3(2), 98–120. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci3020098 | DOI 10.3390/educsci3020098
[38] Nichols, S. L. (2021). Educational policy contexts and the (un)ethical use of data. In E. B. Mandinach & E. S. Gummer (Eds.), The ethical use of data in education: Promoting responsible policies and practices (pp. 81–97). Teachers College Press.
[39] Nichols, S. L, & Berliner, D. C. (2007). Collateral damage: How high-stakes testing corrupts America's schools. Harvard Education Press.
[40] Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2(2), 175–220. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175 | DOI 10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175
[41] Roegman, R., Kenney, R., Maeda, Y., & Johns, G. (2021). When data-driven decision making becomes data-driven test taking: A case study of a midwestern high school. Educational Policy, 35(4), 535–565. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0895904818823744 | DOI 10.1177/0895904818823744
[42] Starratt, R. J. (2004). Ethical leadership (1st ed.). Jossey-Bass.
[43] Starratt, R. J. (2012). Cultivating an ethical school (1st ed.). Routledge.
[44] Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1971). Belief in the law of small numbers. Psychological Bulletin, 76(2), 105–100. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0031322 | DOI 10.1037/h0031322
[45] Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185(4157), 1124–1131. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.185.4157.1124 | DOI 10.1126/science.185.4157.1124
[46] Vasquez Heilig, J., & Darling-Hammond, L. (2008). Accountability Texas-style: The progress and learning of urban minority students in a high-stakes testing context. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 30(2), 75–110. https://doi.org/10.3102%2F0162373708317689 | DOI 10.3102/0162373708317689
[2] Beadie, N. (2004). Moral errors and strategic mistakes: Lessons from the history of student accountability. In K. A. Sirotnik (Ed.), Holding accountability accountable: What ought to matter in public education (pp. 35–50). Teachers College Press.
[3] Beck, J. S., & Nunnaley, D. (2021). A continuum of data literacy for teaching. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 69(2), 100871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2020.100871 | DOI 10.1016/j.stueduc.2020.100871
[4] Bertrand, M., & Marsh, J. (2021). How data-driven reform can drive deficit thinking. Phi Delta Kappan, 102(8), 35–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/00317217211013936 | DOI 10.1177/00317217211013936
[5] Booher-Jennings, J. (2005). Below the bubble: "Educational triage" and the Texas accountability system. American Educational Research Journal, 42(2), 231–268. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312042002231 | DOI 10.3102/00028312042002231
[6] Brighouse, H., Ladd, H. F., Loeb, S., & Swift, A. (2018). Good education policy making: Data-informed but values-driven. Phi Delta Kappan, 100(4), 36–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031721718815671 | DOI 10.1177/0031721718815671
[7] Coburn, C. E., & Talbert, J. E. (2006). Conceptions of evidence use in school districts: Mapping the terrain. American Journal of Education, 112(4), 469–495. https://doi.org/10.1086/505056 | DOI 10.1086/505056
[8] Cronbach, L. J. (1988). Five perspectives on validity argument. In H. Wainer & H. I. Braun (Eds.), Test validity (pp. 3–17). Lawrence Erlbaum.
[9] Daly, A. J. (2009). Rigid response in an age of accountability: The potential of leadership and trust. Educational Administration Quarterly, 45(2), 168–216. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0013161X08330499 | DOI 10.1177/0013161X08330499
[10] Darling-Hammond, L. (2007). Standards and accountability movement needs to push, not punish. Journal of Staff Development, 28(4), 47–50.
[11] Datnow, A. (2017). Opening or closing doors for students? Equity and data-driven decision-making. https://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1317&context=research_conference
[12] Datnow, A., Lockton, M., & Weddle, H. (2021). When data use raises equity and ethical dilemmas in schools. In E. B. Mandinach & E. S. Gummer (Eds.), The ethical use of data in education: Promoting responsible policies and practices (pp. 216–231). Teachers College Press.
[13] Datnow, A., & Park, V. (2018). Opening or closing doors for students? Equity and data use in schools. Journal of Educational Change, 19(5), 131–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-018-9323-6 | DOI 10.1007/s10833-018-9323-6
[14] DeMatthews, D. E., & Serafini, A. (2019). Do good principals do bad things? Examining the bounds of ethical behavior in the context of high-stakes accountability. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 20(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/15700763.2019.1668023 | DOI 10.1080/15700763.2019.1668023
[15] Dorn, S., & Ydesen, C. (2014). Towards a comparative and international history of school testing and accountability. Educational Policy Analysis Archives, 22(115), 1–7. http://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v22.1913 | DOI 10.14507/epaa.v22.1913
[16] Fieser, J. (2003). Ethics. The internet encyclopedia of philosophy. https://iep.utm.edu/ethics/#SH2a 5/27/2021
[17] Garner, B., Thome, J. K., & Horn, I. S. (2017). Teachers interpreting data for instructional decisions: Where does equity come in? Journal of Educational Administration, 55(4), 407–426. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEA-09-2016-0106 | DOI 10.1108/JEA-09-2016-0106
[18] Geckoboard. (n.d.). Data fallacies. https://www.geckoboard.com/best-practice/statistical-fallacies/
[19] General Services Administration. (2020, September). Data ethics framework. Federal Data Strategy. https://resources.data.gov/assets/documents/fds-data-ethics-framework.pdf
[20] Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1973). On the psychology of prediction. Psychological Review, 80(4), 237–251. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0034747 | DOI 10.1037/h0034747
[21] Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1984). Choices, values, and frames. American Psychologist, 39(4), 341–350. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.39.4.341 | DOI 10.1037/0003-066X.39.4.341
[22] Kuhn, K. (2013). Test and punish: How the Texas education model gave America accountability without equity. Park Place Publications.
[23] Lupton, D., & Williamson, B. (2017). The datafied child: The dataveillance of children and implications for their rights. New Media & Society, 19(5), 780–794. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444816686328 | DOI 10.1177/1461444816686328
[24] Mandinach, E. B., Cotto, J., Rastrick, E., Siegl, J., Vance, A., & Wayman, J. C. (2021, October). Student data privacy and data ethics scenarios. Washington, DC and San Francisco, CA: Future for Privacy Forum and WestEd. https://studentprivacycompass.org/resource/scenariosuser-guide/
[25] Mandinach, E. B., & Gummer, E. S. (2016). Data literacy for educators: Making it count in teacher preparation and practice. Teachers College Press.
[26] Mandinach, E. B., & Gummer, E. S. (Eds.). (2021a). The ethical use of data in education: Promoting responsible policies and practices. Teachers College Press.
[27] Mandinach, E. B., & Gummer, E. S. (2021b). The landscape of data ethics in education: What counts as responsible data use. In E. B. Mandinach & E. S. Gummer (Eds.), The ethical use of data in education: Promoting responsible policies and practices (pp. 35–55). Teachers College Press.
[28] Mandinach, E. B., & Jimerson, J. B. (2021a). The role of the district, school, and classroom to ensure ethical use of data: It's more than just FERPA. In E. B. Mandinach & E. S. Gummer (Eds.), The ethical use of data in education: Promoting responsible policies and practices (pp. 125–143). Teachers College Press.
[29] Mandinach, E. B., & Jimerson, J. B. (2021b). User's guide for data privacy and data ethics scenarios for leaders. WestEd.
[30] Mandinach, E. B., & Mundry, S. E. (2021). Data-driven decision making and its alignment with educational psychology: Why data are more than student performance results. In S. L. Nichols & D. Varier (Eds.), Teaching on assessment (pp. 269–291). Information Age Publishing.
[31] Mandinach, E. B., & Nunnaley, D. (2021). The role of professional development providers in training data ethics. In E. B. Mandinach & E. S. Gummer (Eds.), The ethical use of data in education: Promoting responsible policies and practices (pp. 144–172). Teachers College Press.
[32] Mandinach, E. B., & Schildkamp, K. (2021). Misconceptions about data-based decision making in education: An exploration of the literature. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 69, 100842. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2020.100842 | DOI 10.1016/j.stueduc.2020.100842
[33] Mandinach, E. B., Warner, S., & Mundry, S. E. (2019, November 6). Using data to promote culturally responsive teaching: Session 1 [webinar]. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Northeast & Islands, Washington, DC, USA. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ltEf8M4RUoQ
[34] Mandinach, E. B., Warner, S., & Mundry, S. E. (2020, June 4). Using data to promote culturally responsive teaching: Session 2 [webinar]. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Northeast & Islands, Washington, DC, USA. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ZZuyFXpqZM
[35] Manolev, J., Sullivan, A., & Slee, R. (2019). The datafication of discipline: ClassDojo, surveillance and a performative classroom culture. Learning, Media and Technology, 44(1), 36–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2018.1558237 | DOI 10.1080/17439884.2018.1558237
[36] Messick, S. J. (1989). Validity. In. R. L. Linn (Ed.), Educational measurement (3rd ed., pp. 13–103.). Macmillan.
[37] Militello, M., Bass, L., Jackson, K. T., & Wang, Y. (2013). How data are used and misused in schools: Perceptions from teachers and principals. Education Sciences, 3(2), 98–120. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci3020098 | DOI 10.3390/educsci3020098
[38] Nichols, S. L. (2021). Educational policy contexts and the (un)ethical use of data. In E. B. Mandinach & E. S. Gummer (Eds.), The ethical use of data in education: Promoting responsible policies and practices (pp. 81–97). Teachers College Press.
[39] Nichols, S. L, & Berliner, D. C. (2007). Collateral damage: How high-stakes testing corrupts America's schools. Harvard Education Press.
[40] Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2(2), 175–220. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175 | DOI 10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175
[41] Roegman, R., Kenney, R., Maeda, Y., & Johns, G. (2021). When data-driven decision making becomes data-driven test taking: A case study of a midwestern high school. Educational Policy, 35(4), 535–565. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0895904818823744 | DOI 10.1177/0895904818823744
[42] Starratt, R. J. (2004). Ethical leadership (1st ed.). Jossey-Bass.
[43] Starratt, R. J. (2012). Cultivating an ethical school (1st ed.). Routledge.
[44] Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1971). Belief in the law of small numbers. Psychological Bulletin, 76(2), 105–100. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0031322 | DOI 10.1037/h0031322
[45] Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185(4157), 1124–1131. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.185.4157.1124 | DOI 10.1126/science.185.4157.1124
[46] Vasquez Heilig, J., & Darling-Hammond, L. (2008). Accountability Texas-style: The progress and learning of urban minority students in a high-stakes testing context. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 30(2), 75–110. https://doi.org/10.3102%2F0162373708317689 | DOI 10.3102/0162373708317689